Background/Cell Biology And Division - Revision history

SimonJolly at 16:06, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T16:06:22Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:06, 4 July 2017
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	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png]		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png]

	<br />Figure 7: Mitosis and Meiosis [https://en.~~wikipedia~~.org/wiki/~~Nucleotide~~].		<br />Figure 7: How genetic material is shared in Mitosis (above) and Meiosis (below) [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Paleoanthropology/Genetics/Introduction].
	</div>		</div>


	~~https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png~~

	As mentioned above, cells can divide by mitosis or meiosis.		As mentioned above, cells can divide by mitosis or meiosis.
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	Prophase II — cytokinesis II resembles mitosis, in which individual chromatids (arms of the chromosomes) are separated into individual cells.		Prophase II — cytokinesis II resembles mitosis, in which individual chromatids (arms of the chromosomes) are separated into individual cells.
	The result of meiosis is that the total genetic content of the daughter nuclei at the end of meiosis II is half that of the genetic content of the original cell, prior to interphase.		The result of meiosis is that the total genetic content of the daughter nuclei at the end of meiosis II is half that of the genetic content of the original cell, prior to interphase.

			<div style="text-align: center;">
			[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Meiosis_Overview.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Meiosis_Overview.svg/800px-Meiosis_Overview.svg.png]

			<br />Figure 8: Schematic of meiosis [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis].
			During meiosis I, genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes: the chromosomes are then separated into individual cells such that each daughter nucleus contains one homologous chromosome from the original pair.
			In meiosis II, the chromatids are separated.
			The result of meiosis is that the total genetic content of the daughter nuclei at the end of meiosis II is half that of the genetic content of the original cell, prior to interphase.
			</div>

	== References ==		== References ==
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	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
			# Image taken from: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Paleoanthropology/Genetics/Introduction https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Paleoanthropology/Genetics/Introduction] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
			# Image taken from: [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis] (accessed: 14/06/2016).

SimonJolly at 15:43, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:43:03Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:43, 4 July 2017
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	[[File:Background-DNA-replication.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: DNA replication.\|center\|400px]]		[[File:Background-DNA-replication.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: DNA replication.\|center\|400px]]

	DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in ~~the following schematic. For~~ simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).		DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
			This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands.
			The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase.
			The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand.
			This processed is summarised in Figure 6: for simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).

			In the G2 phase (second gap / growth period) cells continue to grow in size.
			Proteins required for cell division are primarily produced in the G2 phase, including microtubules (which make up a variety of structures including spindle fibres).

			== Mitosis and Meiosis ==

			<div style="text-align: center;">
			[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png]

			<br />Figure 7: Mitosis and Meiosis [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide].
			</div>


			https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_vs._meiosis.png

			As mentioned above, cells can divide by mitosis or meiosis.
			Both mitosis and meiosis are sub-divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
			Mitosis consists of a single cell division whereas meiosis consists of two cell divisions.


	In the G2 phase (second gap / growth period) cells continue to grow in size. Proteins required for cell division are primarily produced in the G2 phase, including microtubules (which make up a variety of structures including spindle fibres).		=== Mitosis ===

	~~Cell division~~		In prophase the nuclear envelope breaks down, the chromatin supercoils to form chromosomes and spindle fibres form.
	~~As mentioned above, cells can divide by mitosis or meiosis. Both mitosis and meiosis are sub-divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.~~ Mitosis ~~consists of a single cell division whereas meiosis consists of two cell divisions.~~		In metaphase, the spindle fibres attach to the centre of the chromosomes and cause them to line up in the centre of the cell (shown in Figure 7).
	~~Mitosis:~~		In anaphase, the arms of the chromosomes are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell (now shown in figure).
	In prophase the nuclear envelope breaks down, the chromatin supercoils to form chromosomes and spindle fibres form. In metaphase, the spindle fibres attach to the centre of the chromosomes and cause them to line up in the centre of the cell (~~show~~ in Figure 9). In anaphase, the arms of the chromosomes are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell (now shown in figure). In telophase, the spindle fibres break down. The cell then divides into two separate, genetically identical entities in a process called cytokinesis.		In telophase, the spindle fibres break down.
	Meiosis:		The cell then divides into two separate, genetically identical entities in a process called cytokinesis.
	In meiosis, the prophase – anaphase cycle happens twice. In prophase I the nuclear envelopes break down, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes and the spindle fibres form. Chromosomes with the same genes (but potentially different alleles) – also called homologous chromosomes - will pair up and swap genetic material. Thus a chromosome (1a) encoding for blue eyes, and brown hair (for example) could swap genetic material with a chromosome (1b) encoding for green eyes and black hair. After genetic switching, chromosome 1a may encode for blue eyes and black hair and chromosome 1b may encode green eyes and brown hair. This genetic switching encourages genetic diversity in future generations. In metaphase I, homologous chromosomes line up in the centre of the cell and the spindle fibres attach to the individual chromosomes. The chromosomes are then separated into two separate cells during anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis I. The spindle fibres degenerate. Prophase II – cytokinesis II resembles mitosis, in which individual chromatids (arms of the chromosomes) are separated into individual cells. The result of meiosis is that the total genetic content of the daughter nuclei at the end of meiosis II is half that of the genetic content of the original cell, prior to interphase.
			=== Meiosis ===

			In meiosis, the prophase-anaphase cycle happens twice.
			In prophase I the nuclear envelopes break down, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes and the spindle fibres form.
			Chromosomes with the same genes (but potentially different alleles) — also called homologous chromosomes — will pair up and swap genetic material.
			Thus a chromosome (1a) encoding for blue eyes, and brown hair (for example) could swap genetic material with a chromosome (1b) encoding for green eyes and black hair.
			After genetic switching, chromosome 1a may encode for blue eyes and black hair and chromosome 1b may encode green eyes and brown hair.
			This genetic switching encourages genetic diversity in future generations.
			In metaphase I, homologous chromosomes line up in the centre of the cell and the spindle fibres attach to the individual chromosomes.
			The chromosomes are then separated into two separate cells during anaphase I, telophase I and cytokinesis I.
			The spindle fibres degenerate.
			Prophase II — cytokinesis II resembles mitosis, in which individual chromatids (arms of the chromosomes) are separated into individual cells.
			The result of meiosis is that the total genetic content of the daughter nuclei at the end of meiosis II is half that of the genetic content of the original cell, prior to interphase.

	== References ==		== References ==

SimonJolly at 15:34, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:34:12Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:34, 4 July 2017
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	The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.		The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.

	[[File:Background-DNA-replication.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: DNA replication.\|center]]		[[File:Background-DNA-replication.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: DNA replication.\|center\|400px]]

	DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).		DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).

SimonJolly at 15:33, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:33:35Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:33, 4 July 2017
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	The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.		The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.

			[[File:Background-DNA-replication.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: DNA replication.\|center]]

	DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).		DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).

SimonJolly at 15:32, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:32:07Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:32, 4 July 2017
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	Germ cells (those involved in sexual reproduction) primarily divide by meiosis.		Germ cells (those involved in sexual reproduction) primarily divide by meiosis.

	Figure 6 effectively summarises the cell cycle for both mitosis and meiosis (both of which are indicated by the letter M). Prior to cell division, cells are in a state that is termed interphase (I). Interphase itself can be subdivided into 3 components: G1, S and G2. Cells that are not dividing or in interphase are said to be senescent and exist in the “G0 phase”. Cells may enter the G0 phase for long time periods, or indefinitely, but can re-enter the cell cycle if the correct biological signal is received.		Figure 5 effectively summarises the cell cycle for both mitosis and meiosis (both of which are indicated by the letter M).
	During G1 (gap or growth phase) cells increase in size, produce proteins for DNA replication and increase the number of organelles (such as mitochondria). During S-phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication occurs; i.e: the total DNA contents of the cell doubles (however the cell-size does not change). ~~This is illustrated in Figure 7 in which~~ individual the chromatids of the chromosomes ~~(red and blue)~~ are replicated~~. After replication~~ each chromosome has 2 chromatids (but the total number of chromosomes is unchanged). The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.		Prior to cell division, cells are in a state that is termed interphase (I).
			Interphase itself can be subdivided into 3 components: G1, S and G2.
			Cells that are not dividing or in interphase are said to be senescent and exist in the “G0 phase”.
			Cells may enter the G0 phase for long time periods, or indefinitely, but can re-enter the cell cycle if the correct biological signal is received.
			During G1 (gap or growth phase) cells increase in size, produce proteins for DNA replication and increase the number of organelles (such as mitochondria).
			During S-phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication occurs; i.e: the total DNA contents of the cell doubles (however the cell-size does not change).
			After the individual the chromatids of the chromosomes are replicated, each chromosome has 2 chromatids (but the total number of chromosomes is unchanged).
			The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.



	DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).		DNA replication ensures that each daughter DNA molecule is identical to the parent DNA molecule. This is achieved by splitting the parent DNA molecule into its constituent strands. The enzyme that catalyses this biological process is termed DNA helicase. The enzyme DNA polymerase is then involved in the assembly of a new DNA strand. This processed is summarised in the following schematic. For simplicity the two strands are shown parallel to each other (rather than being coiled around each other).

SimonJolly at 15:22, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:22:37Z

@@ Line 55: / Line 55: @@
 <br />Figure 4: DNA wrapping to form a chromosome [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)].
 </div>
 Figure 6 effectively summarises the cell cycle for both mitosis and meiosis (both of which are indicated by the letter M). Prior to cell division, cells are in a state that is termed interphase (I). Interphase itself can be subdivided into 3 components: G1, S and G2. Cells that are not dividing or in interphase are said to be senescent and exist in the “G0 phase”. Cells may enter the G0 phase for long time periods, or indefinitely, but can re-enter the cell cycle if the correct biological signal is received.
 During G1 (gap or growth phase) cells increase in size, produce proteins for DNA replication and increase the number of organelles (such as mitochondria). During S-phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication occurs; i.e: the total DNA contents of the cell doubles (however the cell-size does not change). This is illustrated in Figure 7 in which individual the chromatids of the chromosomes (red and blue) are replicated. After replication each chromosome has 2 chromatids (but the total number of chromosomes is unchanged). The two chromatids are connected centrally by a centromere.
@@ Line 94: / Line 109: @@
 # Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
 # Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)] (accessed: 04/07/2017).

SimonJolly at 15:16, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:16:55Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:16, 4 July 2017
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	</div>		</div>

			DNA is composed of two poly-nucleotide stands, wrapped around each other to form a double helix (Figure 3).
			The term poly-nucleotide refers to the fact that DNA is composed of two string of thousands of nucleotides.
			Nucleotides are molecules composed of a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar molecule and a phosphate group (Figure 2).
			There are 4 nitrogenous bases: cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) and thymine (T) (Figure 3).
			Bases on one DNA strand will pair with a base on the second strand.
			Adenine will always pair with thymine and cytosine will always pair with guanine.

	~~DNA is composed of two poly~~-~~nucleotide stands, wrapped around each other to form a double helix (Figure 4)~~. ~~The term poly-nucleotide refers to the fact that DNA is composed of two string of thousands of nucleotides~~. ~~Nucleotides are molecules composed of a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar molecule and a phosphate group (Figure 3)~~. ~~There are 4 nitrogenous bases~~: ~~cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) and thymine (T) - Figure 4~~. ~~Bases on one DNA strand will pair with a base on the second strand~~. ~~Adenine will always pair with thymine and cytosine will always pair with guanine~~.		<div style="text-align: center;">
			[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0321_DNA_Macrostructure.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/0321_DNA_Macrostructure.jpg]

			<br />Figure 4: DNA wrapping to form a chromosome [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)].
			</div>

	DNA is stored in the cells in structures referred to as chromatin. DNA is wrapped around 8 histone proteins to form a nucleosome. Tightly bound collections of nucleosomes are referred to as chromatin. During cell division, these structures condense to form chromosomes. Healthy humans have 23 chromosomal pairs (or 46 chromosomes).		DNA is stored in the cells in structures referred to as chromatin. DNA is wrapped around 8 histone proteins to form a nucleosome. Tightly bound collections of nucleosomes are referred to as chromatin. During cell division, these structures condense to form chromosomes. Healthy humans have 23 chromosomal pairs (or 46 chromosomes).
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	== References ==		== References ==

	# Image ~~modified~~ from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)] (accessed: 14/06/2016).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)] (accessed: 14/06/2016).
	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
			# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)] (accessed: 04/07/2017).

SimonJolly at 15:13, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:13:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:13, 4 July 2017
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	<div style="text-align: center;">		<div style="text-align: center;">
	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/800px-Celltypes.svg.png]		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/800px-Celltypes.svg.png]
	<br />Figure 1: Eukaryotic cell [https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:Celltypes.svg~~].		<br />Figure 1: Eukaryotic cell [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)].
	</div>		</div>

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	== References ==		== References ==

	# Image modified from: [https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:Celltypes.svg~~ https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:Celltypes.svg~~] (accessed: 14/06/2016).		# Image modified from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)] (accessed: 14/06/2016).
	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
	# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).

SimonJolly at 15:12, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:12:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:12, 4 July 2017
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	<div style="text-align: center;">		<div style="text-align: center;">
	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/800px-Celltypes.svg.png]		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/800px-Celltypes.svg.png]
	<br />Figure 1: Eukaryotic cell[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg].		<br />Figure 1: Eukaryotic cell [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg].
	</div>		</div>

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	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg]		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg]

	<br />Figure 2: Nucleotides[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide].		<br />Figure 2: Nucleotides [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide].
	</div>		</div>

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	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dna-base-flipping.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dna-base-flipping.svg/684px-Dna-base-flipping.svg.png]		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dna-base-flipping.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dna-base-flipping.svg/684px-Dna-base-flipping.svg.png]

	<br />Figure 3: DNA structure[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping].		<br />Figure 3: DNA structure [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping].
	</div>		</div>

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	# Image modified from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg] (accessed: 14/06/2016).		# Image modified from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg] (accessed: 14/06/2016).
	# Image taken from: [https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg~~ https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg~~] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
	# Image taken from: [https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg~~ https://~~commons~~.~~wikimedia~~.org/wiki/~~File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg~~] (accessed: 04/07/2017).		# Image taken from: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping] (accessed: 04/07/2017).

SimonJolly at 15:11, 4 July 2017

2017-07-04T15:11:18Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:11, 4 July 2017
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	<div style="text-align: center;">		<div style="text-align: center;">
	[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:~~Celltypes~~.~~svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dna-base-flipping.svg/500px-Dna-base-flipping.svg.png]~~		[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg]
	~~ ~~
	~~[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg~~ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg]

	<br />Figure 1: ~~Eukaryotic cell~~[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:~~Celltypes~~.svg].		<br />Figure 2: Nucleotides[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide].
			</div>

			<div style="text-align: center;">
			[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dna-base-flipping.svg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dna-base-flipping.svg/684px-Dna-base-flipping.svg.png]

			<br />Figure 3: DNA structure[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_base_flipping].
	</div>		</div>

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	# Image modified from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg] (accessed: 14/06/2016).		# Image modified from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg] (accessed: 14/06/2016).
			# Image taken from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg] (accessed: 04/07/2017).
			# Image taken from: [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg] (accessed: 04/07/2017).